During their 1898–1899 journey through the Armenian Highlands and Northern Mesopotamia, the German orientalist C.F. Lehmann-Haupt and the chemist W. Belck, among other archaeological sites, also explored the supposed region of Musasir, the spiritual center of Biainili-Urartu. It is noteworthy that they also copied the Topzawa inscription, already known from various testimonies.1 According to C.F. Lehmann-Haupt, this bilingual inscription constitutes a primary source for reconstructing the events that unfolded between Urartu and Assyria during the reign of Rusa, son of Sarduri. It is noteworthy that a number of reconstructions suggested by this pioneer of Urartian studies in connection with the Topzawa inscription remain debated and contested to this day. They concerned the identity of the king who left the inscription, the chronology and nature of the events described, as well as the causes and route of the Assyrian king Sargon II’s campaign against Urartu in 714 BCE (reigned 721–705 BCE).2 At the beginning of the twentieth century, when C.F. Lehmann-Haupt addressed the route of Sargon II’s campaign in the Urmian basin, the boundaries of Urartu were still unclear, and his hypotheses were largely disregarded.

KeywordsTopzawa inscription Lake Urmia Mana Musasir Sargon II Urzana campaign.

The Russo-Turkish Agreement signed on January 26, 1914, did not resolve the Armenian Question. The Ottoman authorities invalidated it, thereby preventing the European inspectors N. Hoff and L. Westenenk from commencing the activities stipulated by the document. This course of action was officially justified by the fact that World War I had begun on July 19, 1914, and under wartime conditions, there was no longer a need to implement the agreement. These realities were reflected in the Armenian press published in Constantinople. In particular, the widely circulated daily newspapers Azatamart and Zhamanak actively covered this issue. They also presented to their readers the expectations and hopes of Armenians regarding the agreement. Opinions varied. Many believed that under the general supervision of the Russian Empire, the agreement would finally safeguard the long-violated rights of Armenians. A significant segment of Armenian society, however, remained skeptical, recalling a number of previously adopted decisions and documents that had in no way contributed to a pro-Armenian resolution of the Armenian Question. Azatamart called upon everyone to remain realistic, while Zhamanak urged patience and waiting for further developments. Alongside expressing their own positions, these periodicals also addressed the viewpoints of pro-European and pro-Russian groups. Analytical articles conclued that, overall, Western Armenians aspired to live a peaceful and secure life in their ancestral homeland. It was noted that although the agreement envisaged reforms in Armenian-populated provinces, the Ottoman government had for decades merely spoken of implementing reforms across the empire, in practice leaving such programs confined to paper.

KeywordsRusso-Turkish Agreement of January 26 1914 Azatamart daily Zhamanak daily Armenian reform program Armenian Question Nikolai Hoff Louis Westenenk