The article is the continuation of the research published in the Bulletin of Oriental Studies, II, 20232 and starts from the period following the fall of the rule of the Safavid power over the region. It considers the state of the Christians of Eastern Transcaucasia in the given period, and the main causes leading to their intensified conversion to Islam. The main focus is on the economic incentives of their Islamization and particularly the poll-tax levied on the Christians in Shaki khanate from the times of Haji Chelebi Khan till the mid-nineteenth century already under the Russian Rule. The published and unpublished archive documents of the period show that the poll-tax named ‘abrishum-i din’ (in Persian), ‘din ipaki’ or ‘ipak dini’ (in Turkish) levied from the Christians of Shaki khanate was rather a heavy tax and in some cases was a reason for their conversion to Islam. The Persian document represented in the article with its English translation and commentaries contains a forcible argument for this.

Keywordshristianity Islam Christians Armenians Udins conversion poll-tax-jizya

The present article is devoted to the use of metaphors in the works of Armenian hymnographers from the 5th to the 8th centuries (Mesrop Mashtots, Sahak Partev, Movses Khorenatsi, Hovhan Mandakuni, Stepannos Syunetsi (I), Komitas Aghtsetsi, Sahak Dzoroporetsi, Hovhan Odznetsi, Barsegh Tchon, Sahakdukht). When describing and praising the Persons of the Holy Trinity, the Mother of God, Christian sacred symbols, and saints, the earliest Armenian hymnographers sought to make their language more vivid and impactful. To achieve this, they primarily employed metaphor, the fundamental form of allegory. The spiritual metaphors used in hymns were largely drawn from Biblical texts and their interpretations, gradually evolving and giving rise to original metaphors as well. This article explores the metaphors employed in 5th–8th century Armenian spiritual poetry to depict the Persons of the Holy Trinity, the Virgin Mary, and John the Baptist, including the following: Light, Source, Ray, Sun, Love, Lover of mankind, Life, Life-Giving Fruit, Fountain of Immortality, Treasure of Life, Bread of Life, Path, King, Staff, Judge, Physician, Shepherd, Captain, Bridegroom, Church, Vine, Rock, Dove, Heavenly Dew, Bright Heaven, Luminous Cloud, Burning Bush, etc. All these metaphors later served as a solid foundation for Grigor Narekatsi’s spiritual symbolism.

KeywordsArmenian literature medieval spiritual poetry metaphor Bible Christ Mesrop Mashtots Movses Khorenatsi.

The Catholicos of All Armenians, Saint Nerses the Gracious (c. 1100–1173), engaged in prolific activities across ecclesiastical, cultural, political, literary, scientific, and educational fields. Through his diverse works, he contributed significantly to the advancement of Armenian literature, particularly its poetic tradition. The hallmark of his genius is evident in nearly all medieval liturgical manuscripts, which he refined as a theologian, doctrinal scholar, exegete, liturgist, philosopher, and artist. His spiritually oriented writings and hymns elevated Armenian medieval art to a new, higher level, enriching both literature and music. Moreover, Nerses the Gracious contributed to the development of the text of the Divine Liturgy and the Armenian Missal, or “Advice Book,” which originated in the Apostolic period and was completed in the 10th century. Over the centuries, it was mainly enriched by the works of Gregory the Illuminator, Sahak Partev, Hovhannes Mandakuni, and Gregory of Narek, and in the 11th century, further developed through the efforts of Nerses the Gracious. Of particular significance is the Catholicos’ contribution to the liturgy, as many of his prayers, exhortations, and songs were incorporated into it. In this way, Nerses also refreshed and enriched their content. Since ancient times, notions of morality and religious rites and ceremonies have played an important role in maintaining human relationships within certain permissible boundaries. Christianity, in turn, initiated a radical transformation in the field of moral understanding, a development pursued by many fathers of the Armenian and universal Church. Nerses the Gracious occupied a distinct place among them. In the vast literary heritage of this multifaceted figure, these influences are clearly reflected through his moral-educational and ethical perspectives, which constitute the central focus of the present study.

KeywordsNerses Shnorhali works ecclesiastical literature theological struggle didactic approach multitalented achievements pan-Christian principles humanistic outlook